Economy
After independence, the state was managed as a democratic socialistwelfare economy. From the 1990s,liberalisation of the mixed economyallowed onerous Licence Raj restrictions against capitalism and foreign direct investment to be lightened, leading to economic expansion and an increase in employment. In the fiscal year 2007–2008, the nominal gross state domestic product (GSDP) was ₹1,624 billion(US$25 billion). GSDP growth; 9.2% in 2004–2005 and 7.4% in 2003–2004 had been high compared to an average of 2.3% annually in the 1980s and between 5.1%[173]:8 and 5.99%[174] in the 1990s.[173]:8 The state recorded 8.93% growth in enterprises from 1998 to 2005, higher than the national rate of 4.80%.[175][176] The "Kerala phenomenon" or "Kerala model of development" of very high human development and in comparison low economic development has resulted from a strong service sector.[135]:48[177]:1
Kerala's economy depends onemigrants working in foreign countries, mainly in Arab states of the Persian Gulf, and remittances annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP.[178] The state witnessed significant emigration during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s. In 2008, the Persian Gulf countries together had a Keralite population of more than 2.5 million, who sent home annually a sum of US$6.81 billion, which is the highest among Indian states and more than 15.13% of remittances to India in 2008.[179] In 2012, Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states: US$11.3 billion, which was nearly 16% of the US$71 billion remittances to the country.[180] In 2015, NRI deposits in Kerala have soared to over ₹1 lakh crore(US$16 billion), amounting to one-sixth of all the money deposited in NRI accounts, which comes to about₹7 lakh crore (US$110 billion).[181]However, a study commissioned by theKerala State Planning Board, suggested that the state look for other reliable sources of income, instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure.[182] According to a study done in 2013, ₹17,500 crore(US$2.7 billion) was the total amount paid to migrant labourers in the stateevery year.[183]
Rural women processing coir threads
The tertiary sector comprises services such as transport, storage, communications, tourism, banking, insurance and real estate. In 2011–2012, it contributed 63.22% of the state's GDP, agriculture and allied sectors contributed 15.73%, while manufacturing, construction and utilities contributed 21.05%.[184] Nearly half of Kerala's people depend on agriculture alone for income.[185] Around 600 varieties[140]:5 of rice, which is Kerala's most used staple and cereal crop,[186]:5are harvested from 3105.21 km2; a decline from 5883.4 km2 in 1990.[186]:5688,859 tonnes of rice are produced per year.[187] Other key crops include coconut; 899,198 ha, tea, coffee; 23% of Indian production,[188]:13 or 57,000 tonnes,[188]:6–7 rubber, cashews, andspices—including pepper, cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg.
Traditional industries manufacturing items; coir, handlooms, and handicraftsemploy around one million people.[189]Kerala supplies 60% of the total global produce of white coir fibre. India's first coir factory was set up in Alleppey in 1859–60.[190] The Central Coir Research Institute was established there in 1959. As per the 2006–2007 census by SIDBI, there are 1,468,104 micro, small and medium enterprises in Kerala employing 3,031,272 people.[191][192] The KSIDC has promoted more than 650 medium and large manufacturing firms in Kerala, creating employment for 72,500 people.[193] A mining sector of 0.3% of GSDP involves extraction of ilmenite,kaolin, bauxite, silica, quartz, rutile,zircon, and sillimanite.[187] Other major sectors are tourism, manufacturing,home gardens, animal husbandry andbusiness process outsourcing.
As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches: each branch served 10,000 people, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states.[194] On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village.[195] Unemployment in 2007 was estimated at 9.4%;[196] chronic issues are underemployment, low employability of youth, and a low femalelabour participation rate of only 13.5%,[197]:5, 13 as is the practice ofNokku kooli, "wages for looking on".[198]By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6% respectively.[199]
Kerala has focused more attention towards growth of Information Technology sector with formation ofTechnopark, Thiruvananthapuram which is one of the largest IT employer in Kerala. It was the first technology park in India[200][201] and with the inauguration of the Thejaswini complex on 22 February 2007, Technopark became the largest IT Park in India.[202]Software giants like Infosys, Oracle,Tata Consultancy Services, Capgemini,HCL, UST Global, Nest and Suntec have offices in the state. The state has a second major IT hub, the Infoparkcentred in Kochi with "spokes"(it acts as the "hub") in Thrissur and Alleppy. As of 2014, Infopark generates one-third of total IT Revenues of the state[203][204]with key offices of IT majors like Tata Consultancy Services, Cognizant, Wipro, UST Global, IBS Software Services etc. and Multinational corporations likeKPMG, Ernst & Young, EXL Services,Etisalat DB Telecom, Nielsen Audio,Xerox ACS, Tata ELXSI etc. Kochi also has another major project SmartCityunder construction, built in partnership with Dubai Government. A third major IT Hub is under construction centred around Kozhikode known as Cyberpark.
The Grand Kerala Shopping Festival(GKSF) was started in 2007, covering more than 3000 outlets across the nine cities of Kerala with huge tax discounts, VAT refunds and huge array of prizes.[205]
Coconut palms can be found all over Kerala
The state's budget of 2012–2013 was₹481.42 billion (US$7.5 billion).[206] The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to ₹217.22 billion(US$3.4 billion) in 2010–2011; up from₹176.25 billion (US$2.7 billion) in 2009–2010. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached₹19,308 million (US$300 million) in 2010–2011.[206] However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services.[207] A record total of 223hartals were observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over ₹20 billion(US$310 million).[208] Kerala's 10% rise in GDP is 3% more than the national GDP. In 2013, capital expenditure rose 30% compared to the national average of 5%, owners of two-wheelers rose by 35% compared to the national rate of 15%, and the teacher-pupil ratio rose 50% from 2:100 to 4:100.[209]
In November 2015, the Ministry of Urban Development selected seven cities of Kerala for a comprehensive development program known as the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT).[210] A package of ₹25 lakh (US$39,000) was declared for each of the cities to develop service level improvement plan (SLIP), a plan for better functioning of the local urban bodies in the cities of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, and Palakkad.[211]
Agriculture
Cashew packets displayed in a supermarket. Kollam is a major exporter of cashews.
The major change in agriculture in Kerala occurred in the 1970s when production of rice fell due to increased availability of rice all over India and decreased availability of labour.[212]Consequently, investment in rice production decreased and a major portion of the land shifted to the cultivation of perennial tree crops and seasonal crops.[213][214] Profitability of crops fell due to a shortage of farm labour, the high price of land, and the uneconomic size of operational holdings.[215]
Kerala produces 97% of the national output of black pepper[216] and accounts for 85% of the natural rubber in the country.[217][218] Coconut, tea, coffee,cashew, and spices—including cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, andnutmeg are the main agricultural products.[219][220][221][222][223][224] 80% ofIndia's export quality cashew kernels are prepared in Kollam.[225] The key agricultural staple is rice, with varieties grown in extensive paddy fields.[226]Home gardens made up a significant portion of the agricultural sector.[227]Related animal husbandry is touted by proponents as a means of alleviating rural poverty and unemployment among women, the marginalised, and the landless.[228][229] The state government promotes these activities via educational campaigns and the development of new cattle breeds such as the Sunandini.[230][231]
A paddy field in Kerala. Rice is the staple crop of the state.
Though the contribution of agricultural sector to the state economy was on the decline in 2012–13, through the strength of the allied livestock sector, it has picked up from 7.03% (2011–12) to 7.2%. In the 2013–14 fiscal period, the contribution has been estimated at a high of 7.75%. The total growth of the farm sector has recorded a 4.39% increase in 2012–13, over a paltry 1.3% growth in the previous fiscal year. The agricultural sector has a share of 9.34% in the sectoral distribution of Gross State Domestic Product at Constant Price, while the secondary and tertiary sectors has contributed 23.94% and 66.72% respectively.[232]
There is a preference for organic products and home farming compared to synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.[233][234]
Fisheries
Cheena vala (Chinese fishing net)
With 590 kilometres (370 miles) of coastal belt,[235] 400,000 hectares of inland water resources[236] and approximately 220,000 active fishermen,[237] Kerala is one of the leading producers of fish in India.[238]According to 2003–04 reports, about 1.1 million people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying, processing, packaging, exporting and transporting fisheries. The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 608,000 tons in 2003–04.[239] This contributes to about 3% of the total economy of the state. In 2006, around 22% of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from Kerala.[240] During the southwest monsoon, a suspended mud bank develops along the shore, which in turn leads to calm ocean water, peaking the output of the fishing industry. This phenomenon is locally calledchakara.[241][242] The waters provide a large variety of fish: pelagic species; 59%, demersal species; 23%,crustaceans, molluscs and others for 18%.[240] Around 1.050 million fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes as of a 1999–2000 estimate; 222 fishing villages are strung along the 590-kilometre (370-mile) coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland. Kerala's coastal belt of Karunagappallyis known for high background radiation from thorium-containing monazite sand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4mGy/yr and, in certain locations on the coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr.[243]
Transport
The main Portico of theThiruvananthapuram Central Railway Station
Cochin International Airport is the busiest Airport in Kerala by total passenger traffic
Kerala State Water Transport Department ferry at Ashtamudi Lakein Kollam, disembarking passengers
Roads
Kerala has 145,704 kilometres (90,536 mi) of roads, which accounts for 4.2% of India's total. This translates to about 4.62 kilometres (2.87 mi) of road per thousand population, compared to an average of 2.59 kilometres (1.61 mi) in the country. Roads in Kerala include 1,524 kilometres (947 mi) of national highway; 2.6% of the nation's total, 4,341.6 kilometres (2,697.7 mi) of state highway and 18,900 kilometres (11,700 mi) of district roads.[244] Most of Kerala's west coast is accessible through the NH 66 (old NH 17 and 47); and the eastern side is accessible through state highways.[245] New project for hill and coastal highways are announced now under KIIFB.[246]National Highway 66, with the longest stretch of road (1,622 kilometres (1,008 mi)) connects Kanyakumari toMumbai; it enters Kerala via Talapady inKasargod and passes through Kannur,Kozhikode, Malappuram, Guruvayur,Kochi, Alappuzha, Kollam,Thiruvananthapuram and Kaliyikkavilabefore entering Tamil Nadu.[245]Palakkad district is generally referred to as the Gateway of Kerala, due to the presence of the Palakkad Gap, in the Western Ghats, through which the northern (Malabar) and southern (Travancore) parts of Kerala are connected to the rest of India via road and rail. There is the state's largest checkpoint, Walayar, in NH 544, the border town between Kerala and Tamil Nadu, through which a large amount of public and commercial transportation reaches the northern and central districts of Kerala.[247]
The Department of Public Works is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways systemand major district roads.[248] The Kerala State Transport Project (KSTP), which includes the GIS-based Road Information and Management Project (RIMS), is responsible for maintaining and expanding the state highways in Kerala; it also oversees a few major district roads.[249][250] Traffic in Kerala has been growing at a rate of 10–11% every year, resulting in high traffic and pressure on the roads. Traffic density is nearly four times the national average, reflecting the state's high population. Kerala's annual total of road accidents is among the nation's highest. The accidents are mainly the result of the narrow roads and irresponsible driving.[251] National Highways in Kerala are among the narrowest in the country and will remain so for the foreseeable future, as the state government has received an exemption that allows narrow national highways. In Kerala, highways are 45 metres (148 feet) wide. In other states National Highways are grade separated highways 60 metres (200 feet) wide with a minimum of four lanes, as well as 6 or 8 lane access-controlled expressways.[252][253]National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) has threatened the Kerala state government that it will give high priority to other states in highway development as political commitment to better highways has been lacking.[254] As of 2013, the state had the highest road accident rate in the country, with most fatal accidents taking place along the state's National Highways.[255]
Railways
Kochi Metro train at PalarivattomMetro station
The Indian Railways' Southern Railwayline runs through the state connecting most of the major towns and cities except those in the highland districts ofIdukki and Wayanad.[256] The railway network in the state is controlled by two out of six divisions of the Southern Railway; Thiruvananthapuram Railway division and Palakkad Railway Division.[257] Thiruvananthapuram Central (TVC) is the largest railway station in the state.[258] Kerala's major railway stations areThiruvananthapuram Central (TVC),Ernakulam Junction (South) (ERS),Kozhikode (CLT), Shornur Junction(SRR), Kochuveli Railway Station (KCVL),Palakkad Junction (PGT), Kollam Junction (QLN), Kannur (CAN), Thrissur Railway Station (TCR), Aluva(AWY),Ernakulam Town (North) (ERN),Alappuzha railway station (ALLP),Kottayam (KTYM), Kayamkulam Junction (KYJ), Chengannur (CNGR), and Tirur railway station (TIR). Major railway transport betweenBeypore–Tirur began on 12 March 1861, from Shoranur–Cochin Harbour sectionin 1902, from Kollam–Sengottai on 1 July 1904, Kollam–Thiruvananthapuramon 4 January 1918, from Nilambur-Shoranur in 1927, from Ernakulam–Kottayam in 1956, from Kottayam–Kollam in 1958, from Thiruvananthapuram–Kanyakumari in 1979 and from the Thrissur-Guruvayur Section in 1994.[259]
Kochi Metro is the metro system for the city of Kochi. It is the one and only metro in Kerala. The construction began in 2012 and the first phase set up at an estimated cost of ₹5181 crore (US$770 million).[260][261]
Airports
Kerala has three international airports:Trivandrum International Airport, Cochin International Airport and Calicut International Airport. All civilian airports operating in the state are international ones, a feature which is unique to Kerala, which is the only state in India without a purely domestic airport. Upon completion of the Kannur International Airport, Kerala will have the most international airports. Unlike other states where the capital city has the highest air traffic, in Kerala air traffic is distributed evenly between Kochi, Thiruvananthapuram, and Kozhikode, which are among the top 15 busiest airports in India.
Kollam Airport, established under the Madras Presidency and closed before the inauguration of Trivandrum International Airport in the capital, was the first airport in Kerala.[262] Trivandrum International Airport, managed by theAirport Authority of India, is among the oldest existing airports in South India. Cochin International Airport is the busiest in the state and the seventh-busiest in the country. It was the first Indian airport to be incorporated as apublic limited company; it was funded by nearly 10,000 non-resident Indiansfrom 30 countries. Cochin Airport is the primary hub of Air India Express and the secondary hub of Air Asia India.[263]
Other than civilian airports, Kochi has a naval airport named INS Garuda. Thiruvananthapuram airport shares civilian facilities with the Southern Air Command of the Indian Air Force. These facilities are used mostly by central government VIPs visiting Kerala.
Water transport
Port of Quilon: A distant view
Kerala has one major port, 17 minor ports and a few mini ports. The state has numerous backwaters, which are used for commercial inland navigation. Transport services are mainly provided by country craft and passenger vessels.[214] There are 67 navigable rivers in the state while the total length of inland waterways is 1,687 kilometres (1,048 mi).[264] The main constraints to the expansion of inland navigation are; lack of depth in waterways caused by silting, lack of maintenance of navigation systems and bank protection, accelerated growth of the water hyacinth, lack of modern inland craft terminals, and lack of a cargo handling system.[214] A canal 205 kilometres (127 mi) long, National Waterway 3, runs between Kottapuram and Kollam, which is included in the East-Coast Canal.[265]
Demographics
Languages of Kerala in 2001[5]
Malayalam (96.74%)
Tamil (1.87%)
Bengali (0.9%)
Hindi (0.88%)
Others (1.39%)
Kerala is home to 2.76% of India's population; with a density of 859 persons per km2, its land is nearly three times as densely settled as the Indian national average of 370 persons per km2.[269] As of 2011, Thiruvananthapuram is the most populous city in Kerala.[270] In the state, the rate of population growth is India's lowest, and the decadal growth of 4.9% in 2011 is less than one third of the all-India average of 17.64%.[269] Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 by adding 15.6 million people to reach 29.1 million residents in 1991; the population stood at 33.3 million by 2011.[269] Kerala's coastal regions are the most densely settled with population of 2022 persons per km2, 2.5 times the overall population density of the state, 859 persons per km2, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated.[271] Around 31.8 million Keralites are predominantly Malayali.[269] The state's 321,000 indigenous tribal Adivasis, 1.10% of the population, are concentrated in the east.[272]:10–12 Malayalam, one of the classical languages in India, is Kerala'sofficial language.[273] Tamil, Kannadaand Konkani are also spoken.[5] As of early 2013, there are close to 2.5 million (7.5% of the state population) migrant labourers in Kerala from other parts of India.[183]
Gender
There is the tradition of matrilineal inheritance in Kerala, where the mother is the head of the household. As a result, women in Kerala have had a much higher standing and influence in the society. This was common among certain influential castes and is a factor in the value placed on daughters. Christian missionaries also influenced Malayali women in that they started schools for girls from poor families.[274]Opportunities for women such as education and gainful employment often translate into a lower birth rate, which in turn, make education and employment more likely to be accessible and more beneficial for women. This creates an upward spiral for both the women and children of the community that is passed on to future generations. According to the Human Development Report of 1996, Kerala's Gender Development Index was 597; higher than any other state of India. Factors, such as high rates of female literacy, education, work participation and life expectancy, along with favourable sex ratio, contributed to it.[275]
Kerala's sex ratio of 1.084 is higher than that of the rest of India and is the only state where women outnumber men.[177]:2 While having the opportunities that education affords them, such as political participation, keeping up to date with current events, reading religious texts etc., these tools have still not translated into full, equal rights for the women of Kerala. There is a general attitude that women must be restricted for their own benefit. In the state, despite the social progress, gender still influences social mobility.[276][277][278]
Human Development Index
As of 2015, Kerala has a Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.712, which is in the "high" category, ranking it first in the country.[4] It was 0.790 in 2007-08[279] and it had a consumption-based HDI of 0.920, which is better than that of many developed countries.[279]Comparatively higher spending by the government on primary level education,health care and the elimination ofpoverty from the 19th century onward has helped the state maintain an exceptionally high HDI;[280][281] the report was prepared by the central government's Institute of Applied Manpower Research.[282][283] However, the Human Development Report 2005, prepared by Centre for Development Studies envisages a virtuous phase of inclusive development for the state since the advancement in human development had already started aiding the economic development of the state.[280] Kerala is also widely regarded as the cleanest and healthiest state in India.[284]
According to the 2011 census, Kerala has the highest literacy rate (93.91) among Indian states.[285][286] The life expectancy in Kerala is 74 years, among the highest in India as of 2011.[287]Kerala's rural poverty rate fell from 59% (1973–1974) to 12% (1999–2010); the overall (urban and rural) rate fell 47% between the 1970s and 2000s against the 29% fall in overall poverty rate in India.[288] By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6% respectively.[199] The 2013 Tendulkar Committee Report on poverty estimated that the percentages of the population living below the poverty line in rural and urban Kerala are 9.14% and 4.97%, respectively.[citation needed] These changes stem largely from efforts begun in the late 19th century by the kingdoms of Cochin and Travancore to boost social welfare.[289][290] This focus was maintained by Kerala's post-independence government.[135][176]:48
Kerala has undergone a "demographic transition" characteristic of suchdeveloped nations as Canada, Japan, and Norway;.[177]:1 as 11.2% of people are over the age of 60,[176] and due to the low birthrate of 18 per 1,000.[291] In 1991, Kerala's total fertility rate (TFR) was the lowest in India. Hindus had a TFR of 1.66, Christians; 1.78, and Muslims; 2.97.[292] The state also is regarded as the "least corrupt Indian state" according to the surveys conducted by Transparency International (2005)[293] and India Today(1997).[294] Kerala has the lowesthomicide rate among Indian states, with 1.1 per 100,000 in 2011.[295] In respect of female empowerment, some negative factors such as higher suicide rate, lower share of earned income, child marriage,[296] complaints of sexual harassment and limited freedom are reported.[275]
In 2015, Kerala had the highest conviction rate of any state, over 77%.[297] Kerala has the lowest proportion of homeless people in rural India – 0.04%,[298] and the state is attempting to reach the goal of becoming the first "Zero Homeless State", in addition to its acclaimed "Zero landless project", with private organisations and the expatriate Malayali community funding projects for building homes for the homeless.[299]The state was also among the lowest in the India State Hunger Index next only toPunjab. In 2015 Kerala became the first "complete digital state" by implementing e-governance initiatives.[300]
Healthcare
Kerala, considered as being healthier than many states of the United States,[301] is a pioneer in implementing the universal health care programme.[302]The sub-replacement fertility level andinfant mortality rate are lower compared to those of other states, estimated from 12[135][291]:49 to 14[303]:5 deaths per 1,000 live births; as per the National Family Health Survey 2015-16, it has dropped to 6.[304] However, Kerala's morbidity rateis higher than that of any other Indian state—118 (rural) and 88 (urban) per 1,000 people. The corresponding figures for all India were 55 and 54 per 1,000 respectively as of 2005.[303]:5 Kerala's 13.3% prevalence of low birth weight is higher than that of many first worldnations.[291] Outbreaks of water-borne diseases such as diarrhoea, dysentery,hepatitis, and typhoid among the more than 50% of people who rely on 3 millionwater wells is an issue worsened by the lack of sewers.[305]:5–7 According to a study commissioned by LienFoundation, a Singapore-based philanthropic organisation, Kerala is considered to be the best place to die in India based on the state's provision of palliative care for patients with serious illnesses.[306]
The United Nations Children's Fund(UNICEF) and the World Health Organisation designated Kerala the world's first "baby-friendly state" because of its effective promotion of breast-feeding over formulas.[307][308]Over 95% of Keralite births are hospital delivered and the state also has the lowest Infant mortality rate in the country. The third National Family Health Survey ranks Kerala first in "Institutional Delivery" with 100% births in medical facilities.[309] Ayurveda,[310]:13siddha, and endangered and endemic modes of traditional medicine, includingkalari, marmachikitsa and vishavaidyam, are practised. Some occupational communities such as Kaniyar were known as native medicine men in relation to the practice of such streams of medical systems, apart from their traditional vocation.[311] These propagate via gurukuladiscipleship,[310]:5–6 and comprise a fusion of both medicinal and alternative treatments.[310]:15
In 2014, Kerala became the first state in India to offer free cancer treatment to the poor, via a program called Sukrutham.[312] People in Kerala experience elevated incidence ofcancers, liver and kidney diseases. In April 2016, the Economic Times reported that 250,000 residents undergo treatment for cancer. It also reported that approximately 150 to 200 liver transplants are conducted in the region's hospitals annually. Approximately 42,000 cancer cases are reported in the region annually. This is believed to be an underestimate due as private hospitals may not be reporting their figures. Long waiting lists for kidney donations has stimulated illegal trade in human kidneys, and prompted the establishment of the Kidney Federation of India which aims to support financially disadvantaged patients.[313]
Religion
Religion in Kerala (2011)[314]
Hinduism (54.73%)
Islam (26.56%)
Christianity (18.38%)
Other or none (0.32%)
In comparison with the rest of India, Kerala experiences relatively littlesectarianism.[315] According to 2011 Census of India figures, 54.73% of Kerala's residents are Hindus, 26.56% are Muslims, 18.38% are Christians, and the remaining 0.32% follow another or have no religious affiliation.[316] Hindusconstitute the majority in all districts except Malappuram, where they are outnumbered by Muslims.[317] Kerala has the largest population of Christians in India.[318]
The mythological legends regarding the origin of Kerala are Hindu in nature. Kerala produced several saints and movements. Adi Shankara was a religious philosopher who contributed to Hinduism and propagated the philosophy of Advaita. He was instrumental in establishing four mathasat Sringeri, Dwarka, Puri and Jyotirmath.Melpathur Narayana Bhattathiri was another religious figure who composedNarayaniyam, a collection of verses in praise of the Hindu God Krishna.
Islam arrived in Kerala through Arab traders in the seventh century CE.[319][320] Muslims of Kerala, generally referred to as Mappila, mostly follow theShafi'i Madh'hab under Sunni Islam.[321]The major Muslim organisations areSunni, Mujahid and Jama'at-e-Islami.[322]
Ancient Christian tradition says that Christianity reached the shores of Kerala in AD 52 with the arrival of Thomas the Apostle, one of the Twelve Apostles ofJesus Christ.[60][323][324][325] Saint Thomas Christians include Syro-Malabar Catholic,[326] Syro-Malankara Catholic,[327] Jacobite Syrian,[328]Malankara Orthodox Syrian,[329]Marthoma Syrian,[330] the Syrian Anglicans in the CSI[331] and severalPentecostal and evangelical[332]denominations. The origin of the Latin Catholic Christians in Kerala is the result of the missionary endeavours of the Portuguese Padroado in the 16th century.[333][334][335]
Judaism reached Kerala in the 10th century BC during the time of King Solomon.[336] They are called Cochin Jews or Malabar Jews and are the oldest group of Jews in India.[56][337]There was a significant Jewish community which existed in Kerala until the 20th century, when most of themmigrated to Israel.[338] The Paradesi Synagogue at Kochi is the oldest synagogue in the Commonwealth.[339]Jainism has a considerable following in the Wayanad district.[340][341]
Buddhism was popular in the time of Ashoka[342] but vanished by the 12th century CE.[343] Certain Hindu communities such as the SamantanKshatriyas, Ambalavasis, Nairs, Tiyyasand the Muslims around North Malabar used to follow a traditional matrilineal system known as marumakkathayam,[344][345] although this practice ended in the years after Indian independence.[346]Other Muslims, Christians, and some Hindu castes such as the Namboothiris, most of the Ambalavasi castes and the Ezhavas followed makkathayam, a patrilineal system.[347][348] Owing to the former matrilineal system, women in Kerala enjoy a high social status.[102]However, gender inequality among low caste men and women is reportedly higher compared to that in other castes.[349] :1
Education
The University of Kerala's administrative building in Thiruvananthapuram
The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries. In attempting to solve astronomical problems, the Kerala school independently created a number of important mathematics concepts, including series expansion for trigonometric functions.[350][351]Following the instructions of the Wood's despatch of 1854, both the princely states, Travancore and Cochin, launched mass education drives with support from agencies, mainly based on castes and communities and introduced a system of grant-in-aid to attract more private initiatives.[352] The efforts by leaders, Vaikunda Swami, Narayana Guru, Ayyankali and Kuriakose Elias Chavara towards aiding the socially discriminated castes in the state, with the help of community-based organisations like Nair Service Society,SNDP, Muslim Mahajana Sabha, Yoga Kshema Sabha (of Nambudiris) and congregations of Christian churches, led to the development of mass education in Kerala.[352]
In 1991, Kerala became the first state in India to be recognised as a completely literate state, though the effective literacy rate at that time was only 90%.[353] As of 2007, the net enrolment in elementary education was almost 100% and was almost balanced among sexes, social groups and regions, unlike other states in India.[354] The state topped the Education Development Index (EDI) among 21 major states in India in the year 2006–2007.[355]According to the first Economic Census, conducted in 1977, 99.7% of the villages in Kerala had a primary school within 2 kilometres (1.2 mi), 98.6% had a middle school within 2 kilometres (1.2 mi) and 96.7% had a high school or higher secondary school within 5 kilometres (3.1 mi).[356] According to the 2011 census, Kerala has 93.91% literacy compared to the national literacy rate of 74.04%.[286] In January 2016, Kerala became the first Indian state to achieve 100% primary education through its literacy programme Athulyam.[357]
Hardware training for students given by "IT@SCHOOL" project
The educational system prevailing in the state's schools is made up of 10 years, which are streamlined into lower primary, upper primary and secondary school stages with a 4+3+3 pattern.[354]After 10 years of schooling, students typically enroll in Higher Secondary Schooling in one of the three major streams—liberal arts, commerce or science.[358] Upon completing the required coursework, students can enroll in general or professional under-graduate (UG) programmes. The majority of public schools are affiliated with the Kerala State Education Board. Other educational boards are the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education(ICSE), the Central Board for Secondary Education (CBSE), and the National Institute of Open Schooling (NIOS). English is the language of instruction in most self-financing schools, while government and government-aided schools offer English or Malayalam.[358]Though the cost of education is generally considered low in Kerala,[359]according to the 61st round of the National Sample Survey (2004–2005), per capita spending on education by the rural households was reported to be ₹41(64¢ US) for Kerala, more than twice the national average. The survey also revealed that the rural-urban difference in household expenditure on education was much less in Kerala than in the rest of India.[360]
Culture
A Kathakali artist
Theyyam, The ritual art of North Malabar
During Onam, Kerala's biggest celebration, Keralites createpookkalam (floral carpet) designs in front of their houses.
Thrissur Pooram festival
A mohiniattam performance
Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan, 17-century poet
Onam Sadya
The culture of Kerala is composite and cosmopolitan in nature and it is an integral part of Indian culture.[13] It is synthesis of Aryan and Dravidiancultures,[361] defined by its antiquity and the organic continuity sustained by theMalayali people.[362] It has been elaborated through centuries of contact with neighbouring and overseas cultures.[363] However, the geographical insularity of Kerala from the rest of the country has resulted in the development of a distinctive lifestyle, art, architecture, language, literature and social institutions.[13] Over 10,000 festivals are celebrated in the state every year.[364]The Malayalam calendar, a solar calendar started from 825 CE in Kerala,[365] finds common usage in planning agricultural and religious activities.[366]
Festivals
Many of the temples in Kerala hold festivals on specific days of the year.[367] A common characteristic of these festivals is the hoisting of a holy flag which is brought down on the final day of the festival after immersing the deity.[368] Some festivals include Poorams, the best known of these being the Thrissur Pooram.[369] "Elephants, firework displays and huge crowds" are the major attractions of Thrissur Pooram.[370] Other known festivals areMakaravilakku,[371] Chinakkathoor Pooram Nenmara Vallangi Vela[372] andUtsavam.[citation needed] Temples that can afford it will usually involve at least one richly caparisoned elephant as part of the festivities. The idol in the temple is taken out on a procession around the countryside atop this elephant. When the procession visits homes around the temple, people will usually present rice, coconuts, and other offerings to it.[373]Processions often include traditional music such as Panchari melam orPanchavadyam.[374]
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